The genome is a complex system of interaction of plesiomorphic and apomorphic genes. Plesiomorphic genes and the traits controlled by them (genus, familia, classis, phylum, regnum) are characterized by high stability over millions of years, do not mutate and avoid the action of natural selection

Genes that control and regulate apomorphic features function according to statistical laws and carry out the processes of adaptation and evolution of species. Only these genes form (dominant or recessive) mutations and adjust the parameters of apomorphic features within the limits of the "reaction norm" to environmental changes.

Adaptation or "continuous rearmament" from the point of view of the concept of "economy of nature" is unprofitable. In the process of evolution, a more economical way emerged, which is based on avoiding the influence of natural selection similar to plesiomorphic genes.

Avoidance can be briefly traced in certain species of Aphidoidea. The vast majority of species live openly on the leaves and shoots of fodder plants, adapting to a wide range of factors, and species that have avoided the influence of certain factors of natural selection.

Yes, Pemphigus fuscicornis (Koch), Daktylosphaera vitifoliae (Fitch) pressed on the root system grew, the species Adelges laricis Vallot, A.laricis Vall., Dysaphis devecta (Walk.), Sacchiphantes abietis (L.), S.viridis (Ratz.) form galls, or false galls of Hamamelistes betulinus (Horvath) changing the environment to suit their needs. A common biological phenomenon of Aphidoidea species avoidance is dispersal, dioecy and parthenogenesis of some species. Sexual reproduction is considered unprofitable.

So, the genome is a complex biological system of the interaction of plesiomorphic (determined) and apomorphic (mutating and acting within the framework of statistical regularity) genes.

Carabus hungaricus Fabricius, 1792 (Coleoptera: Carabidae) is a zoophagous, mesoxerophilic, stenotopic steppe species and endangered everywhere across its highly fragmented distribution range, from Central Europe to Eastern Siberia. The known range of the species in Bulgaria is limited to the western part of the Sofia Basin and, in particular, the neighbouring parts of the Western Stara Planina Mountains. The presented results were obtained during a three-year study (24 May 2021–10 December 2023) using 252 pitfall traps, set in 42 sample plots situated in xerophytic landscapes near the Sofia Basin and similar regions in central–western Bulgaria. The studied areas represent the southernmost limits of the distribution of the steppe fauna in Eurasia and, in Bulgaria, C. hungaricus is only found there (and not in all of them). Carabus hungaricus was established in only seven of the sampling sites, with a total of 198 specimens. These sites are located in the Chepan Planina and Tri Ushi Mountains, both in the range of the Western Stara Planina Mts. Our results add four new points to the distributional map of C. hungaricus in Bulgaria and can be used to update the information regarding its altitudinal limit (the species was so far known from between 500 and 800 m a.s.l), elevating it to 1180 m, under the top of the Chepan Planina Mt. The species will probably be found at the very top (Petrovski Krast Peak, 1206 m) as well. The species was not found in the Western Forebalkan (the “exit” of the Iskar River Gorge) or in the Kraishte Region (Lyubash and Golo Bardo Mountains). Generally, our results confirm that the distribution of C. hungaricus in Bulgaria seems to be limited to within the boundaries of the Natura 2000 Site of Community Importance (SCI) BG0000322 “Dragoman”, but the discovery of new localities indicates that there are still gaps in our knowledge.

The olive fruit fly (Bactrocera oleae) is the most important olive pest worldwide, which can cause total yield losses in olive groves where its population is not controlled. The current knowledge suggests that some commonly used copper-based fungicides and silicate-based particle films can contribute to reductions in B. oleae infestations. The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of commonly used copper fungicides, two different low-copper products (alternative fungicides), and a silicate-based particle film for B. oleae infestations. This study lasted from July to October 2023 in an olive grove on the Croatian coast. It was set up on the most widespread Croatian cultivar, Oblica, and the following treatments were applied: the commonly used copper oxychloride (37.5 % Cu), copper gluconate (12 % Cu), a low-copper product (1 % Cu), a silicate-based particle film product, a mixture of a low-copper (1 % Cu) and a silicate-based particle film product, and water (the control). The fruits were sampled every 15 days and examined for the presence of B. oleae. Total (% of fruit showing signs of infestation) and harmful infestations (% of larvae, pupae, or exit holes) were determined. All of the treatments, with the exception of copper oxychloride, significantly reduced the total infestation of B. oleae compared to that with the control. While all of the treatments were found to be more effective in reducing harmful infestations than the control, only the silicate-based particle film product and the combination of the low-copper product and the silicate-based particle film product significantly reduced infestations. These results indicate that the silicate-based particle film product and the mixture of the low-copper product and the silicate-based particle film product were the most effective in reducing B. oleae infestations. These products might have an important role in future olive fruit fly management programs.

The endangered ground beetle Carabus hungaricus Fabricius, 1792 (Coleoptera: Carabidae), is protected in Bulgaria, but little is known about its ecological and zoogeographical features, and this study aimed at clarifying these aspects of its communities. With 252 pitfall traps, in the period May 2021–December 2023, we surveyed 42 sample plots in central-western Bulgaria. Carabus hungaricus was established in only seven of them, with a total of 198 specimens. In these sites, we found 57 species from 23 genera. The beetles belonged to 18 categories from the five main faunal types of Bulgarian carabids. The European–Asiatic complex prevailed (17 species, 30%), followed by the Northern Holarctic European–Siberian (15 species) and Mediterranean complexes (12 species). The European complex consisted of nine species (16%). The Endemic complex was only represented by two Balkan endemics and two Balkan subendemics. Most represented were the European–Neareastern (17.5%), Palaearctic and European–Central Asian (10.5% each) elements. The two classes of life forms had almost equal proportions, namely, 28 (49.1%) Zoophagous and 29 (50.9%) Mixophytophagous species, which is extraordinary for Bulgaria, but typical for the steppe zone of Eurasia. Such predominance of the mixophytophages (even weak) has never been established in Bulgaria. Macropterous were 32 species (56%), brachypterous (hind wings shorter than elytra, or missing) were 14 species (25%), and di(poly)morphic (some individuals with fully developed, others with vestigial wings) were 11 species (19%). The relatively low number of winged species is comparable only with typical montane habitats. In relation to their humidity preferences, mesoxerophilous carabids had the largest share (25 species, 44%). Mesophilous were 15 species and 6 species were eurybiontic. Xerophilous and mesohygrophilous groups included five species each. Hygrophilous was only one species. In relation to its ground beetle fauna, the studied complex of habitats is quite remarkable for Bulgaria and appears to be stable and characteristic for the steppe biome.

The National Geographic Okavango Wilderness Project aims to secure sustainable protection for the Okavango Delta and its waterways. With 95 % of water flowing into the Okavango Delta originating from the Angolan highlands, this water tower is of great importance, and biodiversity documentation is still in its infancy. As ecosystem engineers, termites play a pivotal role in the breakdown and recycling of organic matter. Termite assemblages in Angola are generally undocumented, and the highlands are no exception.

We sampled over 500 specimens in the open miombo, forest and wetland habitats in Angola’s Cuando Cubango and Moxico provinces, performing DNA barcoding of 242 specimens. Morphological identification was not attempted due to a lack of available taxonomic expertise. Therefore, we relied exclusively on DNA-based methods to infer the most likely taxon. BOLD Systems was utilised for sequence searches, and phylogenetic context was created using new and publicly available DNA barcodes obtained from other Southern African regions. Genetic clusters identified were assessed for intragroup genetic divergence.

The analyses placed the specimens in a total of three families (Kalotermitidae, Hodotermitidae and Termitidae) and four subfamilies of Termitidae (Apicotermitinae, Nasutitermitinae, Macrotermitinae and Termitinae), spanning 18 genera. Only 24.79 % of the sequences were identified to the species level, encompassing 13 species.

Our results represent the first attempt to document termite diversity at the source of the Okavango Delta and sets the baseline data for documenting termite diversity in Angola. We also highlight that the paucity of DNA sequence data for termites in Southern Africa severely hinders the construction of comprehensive biodiversity assessments.

This study examines the communities of the protected Carabus hungaricus Fabricius, 1792 (Coleoptera: Carabidae), in Bulgaria. With the help of 252 pitfall traps, in the period of 24 May 2021 – 10 December 2023, we surveyed 42 sample plots in central-western Bulgaria. Carabus hungaricus was established in seven of the sampling sites (frequency of occurrence, F = 17%), with a total of 198 specimens (1.3% of the total numbers of the carabids). In these seven sites, we found 57 species belonging to 23 genera and 12 tribes, mostly open habitat dwellers. Tribe Harpalini had 19 of the species (33%). The most species-rich genera were Harpalus (13 sp., 23% of all), Amara (8 sp., 14%), and Carabus (6 sp., 10%). The most represented species were the superdominant Calathus distinguendus (with more than 71% of all carabid specimens), the dominants Carabus coriaceus and Laemostenus terricola, and the subdominants Calathus cinctus, Carabus cavernosus, C. hungaricus, and C. convexus. Euconstant species, collected in all seven sampling sites (F = 100%), were C. coriaceus and Calathus distinguendus. Among the common and abundant members of the C. hungaricus communities in Bulgaria were the constant species, found in six or five of the sites (F = 86%, F = 71%): Calathus cinctus, Laemostenus terricola, C. cavernosus, C. convexus, Cymindis axillaris, and Licinus cassideus. In terms of the ecological relationships of C. hungaricus, possible competition might be expected from the closely related species C. morio, insofar as they have very similar ecological requirements, and to some extent from C. torosus, which is more xerophilous. However, they do not occur in the area where C. hungaricus lives in Bulgaria. Carabus scabriusculus seems to occupy a different ecological niche, and has a wider tolerance in its requirements; in addition, in recent decades, in Bulgaria this species has seemed to decline more and more.

Aedes albopictus, known as the Asian tiger mosquito, is an invasive mosquito species and a key vector of several mosquito-borne diseases. Since its first record in Greece in 2003-2004, it has been established in almost all areas of the country, including Athens. Effective mosquito surveillance is vital for controlling mosquito populations. Ovitraps have been extensively used as a surveillance tool for Ae. albopictus, while their efficiency may vary depending on various factors such as the size and the substrate type. This study investigates the influence of trap size and substrate material on Ae. albopictus egg catches under field conditions. Over a 12-week period, a network of ovitraps of three different sizes —350 mL (small), 600 mL (medium), and 1100 mL (large)— were set up at the campus of the Agricultural University of Athens, Greece. Each trap was filled to three-quarters of its capacity with water and equipped with one of two types of substrates: a wooden strip or styrofoam. The traps were monitored weekly, using a 6 × 6 Latin square design for trap rotation. A zero-inflated negative binomial model was utilized to analyze the egg count data. The results showed a significant effect of both substrate and trap size on the collection of Ae. albopictus eggs. Wooden substrates were more effective, collecting almost double the number of eggs than styrofoam. Regarding the trap size, large and medium traps significantly outperformed small traps, catching a mean of 38.5 (± 5.06), 44.4 (± 5.98), and 24.7 (± 5.03) eggs per week, respectively, while no profound difference was identified between large and medium sizes. Our findings demonstrate that wooden substrates and larger trap sizes are the most effective combination for Aedes albopictus egg collection. This study provides insights from the field for optimizing ovitrap design to improve mosquito population surveillance and control strategies.

Carabus hungaricus Fabricius, 1792 (Coleoptera: Carabidae) is a Natura 2000 species, protected by Directive 92/43/EEC (Annexes II and IV) and included in the Berne Convention (II) and CORINE. It is declining everywhere across its highly fragmented distribution range (from Central Europe to Eastern Siberia), sharing the fate of the temperate grasslands that it lives in, which are among the most threatened biomes on Earth. In Bulgaria, it is protected by the Biological Diversity Act (Annexes II and III), added in the Bulgarian Red Data Book as “Vulnerable”, and included in the standard form of only one protected area (BG0000322 “Dragoman”) with an unfavourable status. This study presents a part of the results from the work on the development of an Action Plan for its conservation in Bulgaria. During the three-year study (May 2021–December 2023), using 252 pitfall traps, we explored 42 plots in central–western Bulgaria. We proved the strong attachment of the species to the karst steppes, and its requirement for a lack of anthropogenic pressure or changes in the landscape structure, vegetation, edaphotope, and microclimatic characteristics. In the developed Action Plan, for the period of 2023–2032, restrictive measures related to the conservation of the old and newly established localities and the use of traditional extensive practices maintaining the karst steppe biome in an unchanged state, ensuring the existence of the entire steppe biota, were established. All localities of Carabus hungaricus in Bulgaria are situated in the karst steppes of the small mountains around the Sofia Basin. Since they represent the southernmost areas of the entire Eurasian steppe biome, the existence of the entire steppe complex in this border refugium is highly vulnerable and dependent on full conservation, which can only be achieved by designating strictly protected areas.

The infestation of Varroa destructor is one of the most critical challenges that global beekeeping faces, causing varroosis (or varroatosis). First identified in the late 1960s in the Soviet Republics and Eastern Europe, Varroa reached Italy in 1981, spreading nationwide by 1985, and was detected in the Aosta Valley (the extreme northwestern part of the country) in 1988.

During the initial spread of the mite, varroosis was classified as a notifiable disease, requiring beekeepers to report infestations, monitor colonies, and adopt preventive measures, among which colony destruction was not unusual. In some regions, financial compensation was provided for apiary losses. As Varroa became endemic in Italian apiaries, attention shifted toward implementing authorized veterinary treatments, integrated pest-management strategies, and ongoing beekeeper education.

Over the years, the Ministry of Health has issued increasingly structured ordinances emphasizing prevention, monitoring, and treatment. Current guidelines recommend at least two annual interventions aligned with the parasite’s biology and seasonal bee-colony cycles: i) after the main honey harvest and ii) before the wintering period. However, these interventions must be adapted to local climatic conditions and colony development stages. In certain regions, additional treatments may be required, considering factors such as infestation levels and nectar flow dynamics.

Beekeepers, supported by industry associations, play a central role in monitoring infestation levels and timing interventions. Effective Varroa control requires strategic planning and distributing treatments throughout the year. This approach ensures optimal colony health while minimizing the risk of significant losses.

Structured national surveillance is essential to monitor resistance to active ingredients used in treatments, safeguarding their continued efficacy. Timely, well-planned interventions, adapted to local conditions and the biological cycles of both the mite and the bees, are fundamental for managing Varroa infestations and maintaining the productivity and health of bee colonies.

Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) is a genus native to Australia and has become widely distributed due to its rapid growth and commercial applications. However, these trees are highly susceptible to pests, including gall wasps of the genus Ophelimus (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), which can cause significant damage to plantations. In Argentina, two species of this genus have been detected: Ophelimus maskelli was first reported in 2013, and an unidentified species, Ophelimus sp., was observed in 2017. This study aimed to identify the species Ophelimus sp. present in Argentina using morphological and molecular data. Eucalyptus branches with leaves containing mature galls were collected from two locations in the Province of Buenos Aires. The leaves were stored under controlled conditions until the adults emerged. Specimens were preserved in 96% ethanol for molecular analysis or in 70% ethanol for morphological characterization. Molecular analyses included the sequencing of two molecular markers: Cytochrome Oxidase subunit I (COI) and the 28S rDNA region (28S). Morphological analysis was performed by critical point drying specimens preserved in ethanol and mounting them in cards and Canadian balsam. The results confirmed the first record of Ophelimus mediterraneus in Argentina and the Americas, affecting Eucalyptus species such as E. dunnii, E. viminalis, E. benthamii, and E. cinerea, and the first record of males of this species. The galls are circular and brown and develop on only one side of the leaf. The sequences of COI and 28S revealed a 99-100% identity with those of European populations of this species. In addition, this study provides the first description of O. mediterraneus males, contributing new insights into their morphology and biology.