Nature-Based Solutions for Biophilic Cities: A Critical SWOT Review

Urbanization continues to place immense pressure on land use systems, resulting in habitat fragmentation, biodiversity loss, climate vulnerability, and a growing disconnect between people and nature. In response, nature-based solutions (NbSs) have gained prominence as an integrated approach to reintroduce natural systems into cities and support the emergence of biophilic urbanism. This paper explores the role of NbSs in shaping biophilic cities by conducting a systematic literature review and critically evaluating their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) in urban planning and design.

Using a systematic search of peer-reviewed journal articles, policy reports, and case studies published between 2000 and 2024, the review identifies key themes, implementation strategies, and outcomes associated with NbSs in urban contexts. The SWOT framework is applied to categorize the findings and analyze the strategic potential and limitations of NbSs within biophilic design practices. Strengths identified include ecosystem service enhancement, climate resilience, mental and physical health benefits, and aesthetic and cultural value. However, weaknesses such as fragmented governance, lack of measurable indicators, maintenance burdens, and potential for socio-spatial inequalities (e.g., green gentrification) are also evident.

Opportunities are highlighted in emerging policy mandates, climate adaptation funding, regenerative design movements, and community-led green infrastructure. At the same time, threats include land use conflicts, political inertia, uneven distribution of green benefits, and commodification of urban nature. The paper concludes by recommending pathways to better integrate NbSs into urban policy, land management, and planning systems, ensuring they support equitable, inclusive, and ecologically regenerative cities.

By situating NbSs within the biophilic city agenda, this critical review contributes to a deeper understanding of how land use futures can be shaped through design strategies that restore human–nature relationships and enhance urban sustainability.