The 3D-Printed Low-Cost 6-DoF Robot Adolfo: Technology Overview and Benchmarking

Fully articulated 6-degree-of-freedom (6-DoF) robotic manipulators remain one of the most versatile architectures in industrial robotics due to their high dexterity and capability to perform complex spatial tasks. However, their widespread adoption is often limited by cost, system complexity, and reduced accessibility for small-scale industry, research, and education. Recent advances in Additive Manufacturing (AM), particularly low-cost 3D printing technologies, are enabling new design paradigms that challenge conventional approaches to robotic arm development by increasing geometric freedom, modularity, and manufacturing accessibility. This paper presents a comprehensive technology overview and benchmarking study of the Adolfo, a low-cost 6-DoF robotic manipulator developed by Smile.Tech, whose mechanical structure is predominantly produced using 3D-printed components. The work addresses the multidisciplinary aspects of the system, including mechanical architecture, actuation strategy, control and interface software, and compatibility with virtual operation and simulation environments. A concise review of the current state of the art in industrial and collaborative 6-DoF manipulators is provided to contextualize the proposed solution. To assess the positioning of the Adolfo within the existing market landscape, a benchmarking analysis is conducted against representative commercial robotic arms, focusing on key operational and technical indicators such as payload-to-weight ratio, workspace, repeatability, structural design, cost range, and software ecosystem. The results highlight the trade-offs between performance, cost, and manufacturability inherent to low-cost, additively manufactured robotic systems, while identifying application domains where such platforms offer a competitive and flexible alternative to conventional industrial solutions. The presented study aims to support informed decision-making in the selection and development of accessible 6-DoF robotic platforms for research, education, and light industrial applications, with particular relevance for human–robot collaboration in Industry 5.0 manufacturing contexts.