A systematic review of the pathways, co-occurrence, and displacement patterns of Rhipicephalus microplus and Rhipicephalus decoloratus in Africa.

Rhipicephalus microplus, also known as the Asian blue tick, is becoming a major threat to cattle production in Africa. This species is reported to displace closely related native species such as Rhipicephalus decoloratus. It is also an efficient vector of highly pathogenic organisms, like Babesia bovis and B. bigemina, causing diseases of economic and veterinary importance. This systematic review synthesises published evidence on the pathways of introduction and spread, co-occurrence, and displacement patterns of these two species in Africa. A systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and African Journals Online was conducted for studies published between 2000 and 2025, following PRISMA guidelines. The year 2000 was selected as the starting point because species within the Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) complex were often inconsistently classified in earlier literature, potentially confounding species-specific analyses, thereby reducing the likelihood of incorporating records affected by historical taxonomic ambiguity. Eligible studies were screened using predefined criteria, and findings are synthesized narratively because of heterogeneity in study designs, reporting formats, and outcomes. The available evidence indicates that the spread of R. microplus in Africa has been driven largely by livestock trade and transhumance, with establishment reported across multiple countries in West, East, and Southern Africa. However, the continental pattern is heterogeneous: some areas report apparent displacement of R. decoloratus, whereas others show continued co-occurrence or persistence of the native species. Reported outcomes appear to be influenced by ecological factors and livestock management practices, including climate, host movement, and tick control practices. The spread of R. microplus is a One Health issue, not a purely veterinary one. It simultaneously threatens animal production, human food safety, public health, and ecosystem stability. We call for integrated surveillance that jointly monitors tick populations and diversity to inform cohesive control strategies across Africa to enhance livestock and human health in the changing environment.