Background:
(Micro)plastic pollution is a growing environmental and public health concern, especially in developing countries, where industrial discharge, unregulated plastic use, and improper waste management amplify the release of xenobiotics such as bisphenol A (BPA). BPA is widely used in consumer products like baby feeders, food containers, and plastic manufacturing industries. As an endocrine disruptor with potential carcinogenic properties, BPA leaches from macro- and microplastics into aquatic systems, threatening both aquatic organisms and humans through the food chain. Sustainable alternatives and improved waste management practices are urgently needed, particularly in developing regions.

Methods:
Eighty freshwater bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) were randomly divided into four groups (A–D). Fish in groups B–D were exposed to different BPA concentrations for 60 days, while group A served as the control. Post-exposure, gills, liver, kidneys, and brain tissues were analyzed for oxidative stress biomarkers, antioxidant enzyme activities, and genotoxic alterations.

Results:
BPA exposure caused significant increases in oxidative stress markers (ROS, TBARS, GSH) and decreases in antioxidant enzymes (catalase, SOD, peroxidase) (p < 0.05). Morphological abnormalities, nuclear alterations in erythrocytes, and DNA damage were observed, indicating strong genotoxic potential.

Conclusion:
The study demonstrates that BPA from (micro)plastics and industrial discharge induces oxidative stress, disrupts antioxidant defenses, and causes genetic damage in freshwater fish. In developing countries, uncontrolled plastic use and inadequate waste disposal exacerbate these risks. Adoption of sustainable alternatives—including bio-based plastics (PLA and PHA), natural polymers (cellulose and chitosan), and reusable materials like glass and stainless steel—along with stricter plastic waste management, is urgently needed to protect both aquatic ecosystems and human health.