Nanomaterials are increasingly present in agricultural fields, either intentionally through the application of nanopesticides and nanofertilizers or unintentionally through the use of sewage sludge as a soil amendment or fertiliser. The soil biota, including plants, invertebrates, and the microbiome, can become non-target recipients during the application of agrochemicals or amendments. Consequently, it is essential to investigate the toxicity, accumulation, and community change patterns that nanomaterials present in agroapplications can induce. Laboratory-based toxicity studies will be presented that examine the interaction between invertebrates and the microbiome, or target plant exposure, along with higher-tier mesocosm trials, providing valuable insights into how these materials influence biota health and community changes. A case study of a Cu-based nanopesticide (as an intentional source) will be used to holistically explore how invertebrates, plants, and the microbiome respond to different Cu forms when applied in agriculture. These studies are critical for understanding the fate, toxicity, and traits of nanomaterials in agriculture, contributing to the development of safer and more efficient agrochemical products.

Acknowledgments This study was supported by Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT): under the frame of SIINN, the ERA-NET for a Safe Implementation of Innovative Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, within the project Nano-FARM - Fate and Effects of Agriculturally relevant Materials (ERANET SIIN 2014, SIINN/0001/2014), and through national funds, under the project/grant UID/50006 + LA/P/0094/2020