Introduction

With the aim of promoting the circular economy and generating solutions to mitigate current environmental problems, the National Hydrogen Centre is working on a project that focuses on the recovery of CO₂ to obtain fuels and high-added-value products.

The main innovation of this project lies in the integration of different technologies. The Fischer–Tropsch processes for fuel production, methanol production, anaerobic digestion, oxy-gasification, and electrolysis are included. The gas obtained from oxy-gasification (CO and H₂) and AD (CO₂) facilities, together with a supply of renewable H₂ from an electrolyzer, could be used to feed the Fischer–Tropsch and MeOH plants. On the other hand, the biogas (CH4 and CO₂) from AD could feed the upgrading pilot plant for biomethane production. This idea therefore supports a technological system that constitutes a new concept of advanced biomass biorefinery.

Methods

The system consists of different pilot plants that host the following processes:

- Oxy-gasification: This allows synthesis gas to be obtained from lignocellulosic biomass waste. The use of oxygen as a gasifying agent allows a gas with a higher calorific value to be produced. This gas can supply the Fischer–Tropsch and methanol production processes, promoting the production of renewable fuels and methanol (e-fuels).

- Fischer–Tropsch: This is a widely studied process. It is based on the catalytic synthesis of hydrocarbons of industrial interest (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, etc.). Waxes are also obtained, which can be transformed into products with added value.

- Methanol production: This pilot plant produces methanol from the hydrogenation of CO₂. Its use as an alternative fuel and H₂ carrier is being promoted.

- Anaerobic digestion + biogas upgrading: The Anaerobic Digestion Plant, together with a biogas treatment stage, will enable biogas and biomethane to be obtained from abundant waste in the region, such as agricultural and livestock by-products. This pilot plant could become a source of energy for other facilities, as they will be able to use this sustainable fuel, thereby promoting the concept of the circular economy and reducing the use of fossil fuels. Additionally, CO₂ from biogas could be used in the other plants to produce various renewable fuels.

Furthermore, this project includes the installation of an electrolyzer to meet the H₂ requirements of the Fischer–Tropsch, methanol, and biogas upgrading plants, as well as the oxygen required for the oxy-gasification process.

Results

The fundamental objective is to optimize processes for subsequent scaling up to demonstrate that this integrated “biorefinery” concept is a sustainable and technically and economically viable alternative for the production of renewable fuels and energy generation from the available waste or by-products in the surrounding area. CO₂ emissions from this technological complex are also significantly reduced by using the synthesis gas obtained in oxy-gasification as a feedstock in Fischer–Tropsch processes and methanol production, as well as using the biogas produced as an energy source in the facilities.

According to the research lines established and in agreement with the different capacities of the pilot plants, the goal is to generate 1.5 kg/h of gasoline and up to 1.5 kg/h of methanol. This will be the result of the valorisation of 50 kg/h of forest biomass in the entrained flow reactor of the oxy-gasification pilot plant. On the other hand, the Anaerobic Digestion Plant will process 100 kg/day of different types of organic waste (agri-food industry waste, municipal solid waste fractions, sewage sludge, etc.), and the upgrading unit will produce 0.13 Nm³/h of biomethane (96%).

It should also be noted that by-products such as digestates, wastewater, waxes, char, and ash will be characterized and processed for their reuse in a way that directly impacts on the population, such as the development of fertilizers that can be applied to the surrounding land.

Conclusions

This technological platform enables the analysis of synergies and process compatibility on an industrial scale, representing a new concept in advanced biomass biorefining. It facilitates the recovery of waste and by-products, providing economic and social benefits to the local area. Furthermore, the portable design of these pilot plants enables companies and research centres requiring these capabilities to find solutions.

The adoption of photovoltaic (PV) systems by micro- and small enterprises (MSEs) continues to represent a major challenge in emerging economies, even though the economic, environmental, and energy-security benefits of solar technologies are widely recognized. In contexts such as Colombia, where MSEs account for a substantial share of economic activity and electricity demand, the diffusion of distributed solar energy remains limited. This situation highlights the need to better understand the factors that shape adoption decisions beyond purely technical or financial considerations, particularly those related to individual perceptions, organizational conditions, and the broader institutional environment. This study investigates the determinants of MSEs’ intention to adopt photovoltaic systems by integrating the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Technology–Organization–Environment (TOE) framework into a unified explanatory model. This integrated approach allows for a comprehensive assessment of both individual-level cognitive factors and organizational and environmental influences affecting technology adoption. Data were collected from micro- and small enterprises operating across diverse economic sectors, ensuring heterogeneity in organizational characteristics and energy use profiles. The proposed model was empirically tested using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), a method well suited for exploratory analysis and prediction-oriented research.

The analytical procedure followed several stages, including the validation of the measurement model, the estimation of direct and indirect relationships through bootstrapping, and predictive performance assessment using the root-mean-square error (RMSE) and Stone–Geisser’s Q². Additionally, importance–performance map analysis (IPMA) was applied to identify the most relevant constructs for managerial and policy intervention. The results reveal that TAM-related variables, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and attitude toward photovoltaic systems, are the strongest predictors of adoption intention, explaining a substantial proportion of its variance. In contrast, organizational and environmental factors, such as management support, regulatory incentives, and energy cost pressure, show mainly indirect or comparatively weaker effects. Overall, the findings suggest that photovoltaic adoption among MSEs is driven primarily by individual cognitive and evaluative processes rather than external pressures. This underscores the importance of user-oriented system design, simplified financing mechanisms, and targeted capacity-building strategies aimed at enhancing perceptions of usefulness and ease of use, thereby accelerating the energy transition in small businesses.

In alignment with the European Union’s "Fit for 55" package and the Spanish National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP), the Spanish power sector is undergoing a decarbonisation process. While existing research has extensively characterised the transition through specific metrics, a holistic understanding of the environmental trade-offs remains limited. Shifting toward renewable-heavy systems often mitigates climate impacts but may inadvertently increase other environmental burdens. This study aims to provide a comprehensive environmental profile of the seven key technologies in the Spanish electricity mix by applying the European Commission’s Environmental Footprint (EF 3.1) methodology.

To this end, a "cradle-to-grave" Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was conducted for (onshore) wind power, hydropower (reservoir), solar thermal (CSP), solar photovoltaic (PV), hard coal plants, combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT), and nuclear power. To carry out the simulations, the study used the SimaPro software with the Ecoinvent v3.10 database, adapting some of the processes with data from the current Spanish context. This research evaluates all 16 impact categories defined by the EF 3.1 framework, including acidification, freshwater ecotoxicity, eutrophication (marine, freshwater and terrestrial), human toxicity (cancer and non-cancer), ionising radiation, land use, ozone depletion, or mineral and metal resource use. The functional unit is defined as 1 kWh of electricity produced at the plant busbar.

Results reveal significant hidden trade-offs. While wind and nuclear power consistently show the lowest scores in Climate Change overall category (0.0124 and 0.00636 kg CO₂ eq/kWh, respectively), they exhibit distinct pressures in other areas. Nuclear power represents the main contributor to Ionising Radiation (0.72 kBq U-235 eq/kWh) and Fossil Resource Use (13.2 MJ/kW) due to uranium mining. Conversely, coal power remains the most damaging technology across most categories, notably in Acidification (0.0137 mol H+ eq/kWh), Particulate Matter (1.57E-8 disease inc./kWh), and Marine Eutrophication (0.0018 kg N eq/kWh).

The analysis highlights that Photovoltaic (PV) technology, while carbon-efficient, presents a high intensity in Resource Use of Minerals and Metals (2.26E-7 kg Sb eq/kWh) and Land Use (6 Pt), primarily driven by the manufacturing stage of multi-Si panels and mounting structures. Solar thermal energy shows a non-negligible impact in Freshwater Ecotoxicity (0.677 CTUe) due to the use of synthetic oils and nitric acid in nitrate salts used for storage. Hydropower exhibits the highest impact in the Water Use category (2.27 m³ depriv./kWh), reaffirming its critical role in water-stressed regions like Spain. Additionally, Combined Cycle (CCGT) technology, reveals a significant drawback in Ozone Depletion (5.14E-8 kg CFC11 eq/kWh), the highest among all technologies evaluated, primarily due to upstream supply chain emissions.

The study demonstrates that a decarbonisation strategy based solely on GWP reduction provides an incomplete picture of environmental sustainability. The transition to a renewable-based mix in Spain involves shifting burdens from emissions to resource consumption and localised toxicity. By identifying these "burden-shifting" processes, this research provides insights for policymakers to refine the NECP 2030-2050 objectives. It is concluded that integrating the Environmental Footprint framework into national energy planning is vital to ensure that climate neutrality does not come at the cost of mineral exhaustion or increased toxicity to humans.

South Africa faces significant challenges in managing rapidly growing municipal solid waste (MSW) streams, which contribute to environmental pollution and lost energy potential. Converting municipal solid waste (MSW) into bioenergy presents a dual opportunity to generate renewable energy while mitigating environmental pollution in rapidly urbanizing regions like South Africa. This study evaluates the techno-economic and life-cycle performance of bioenergy production through gasification of torrefied MSW, using a 100 kg feedstock scenario representative of local municipal waste streams. Torrefaction improves feedstock quality by increasing energy density and reducing moisture content to 10%, yielding a higher heating value (HHV) of 20 MJ/kg, thereby enhancing gasification efficiency. The techno-economic assessment demonstrates that a 1 ton/hour plant converting torrefied MSW into syngas requires a capital investment of USD 4.5 million, with annual operating costs of USD 45,000. Revenue from syngas sales is projected at USD 67,000 per year, producing a Net Present Value (NPV) of USD 560,000 and an Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of 12%. The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is USD 0.03/kWh, competitive with conventional fossil fuels. Sensitivity analyses indicate that feedstock composition, plant scale, and local energy pricing significantly influence economic viability, highlighting opportunities for optimized operational strategies. The life-cycle assessment underscores substantial environmental benefits, including GHG emission reductions of 15 kg CO₂-equivalent per 100 kg of torrefied MSW, displacement of fossil fuels, and improved energy recovery, achieving a process energy efficiency of 36% and an energy return on investment (EROI) of 3. Gasification produces 60 kg of syngas with an HHV of 12 MJ/kg and 15 kg of char, demonstrating effective material and energy utilization. Overall, torrefied MSW gasification provides a technically feasible, economically viable, and environmentally sustainable bioenergy pathway for South Africa. These findings offer critical guidance for policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers seeking to implement advanced waste-to-energy systems that support renewable energy deployment, methane mitigation, and the transition toward a circular bioeconomy

Introduction

Hydrogen is a key energy vector for transitioning to sustainable energy systems, with applications in energy storage, power-to-gas systems, fuel cells, and transportation. Water electrolysis powered by renewable energy enables hydrogen production without direct CO₂ emissions, supporting the European Union’s climate neutrality goals [1]. Among technologies, alkaline water electrolysis (AWE) stands out for its maturity, robustness, scalability, and use of non-noble metal materials [2,3]. Regarding electrodes, nickel is a reference material for AWE because of its chemical stability and ability to form catalytically active phases such as nickel hydroxides and oxyhydroxides (β- and α-NiOOH) at higher potentials, enhancing reaction kinetics and lowering overpotentials for both HER and OER [2–4].

Furthermore, photovoltaic (PV) energy is becoming a promising renewable energy source. However, the intermittent availability and the fluctuations in the offer–demand market create the need for incorporating energy carriers. Based on this, integrating AWE with renewable sources introduces dynamic operation challenges: load variations and on/off cycles may affect electrode behavior and long-term durability [5].

In this work, we explored the formation of different active catalytic species of Ni under continuous and intermittent regimes simulating realistic photovoltaic (PV) generation profiles, focusing on their potential application in green hydrogen production [2,3].

Methods

This study investigates the electrochemical behavior of smooth Nickel 200 (Ni200, Electrocell, Denmark) electrodes as cathodes and anodes under alkaline electrolysis with renewable energy profiles. Experiments were conducted in 30 wt % KOH at 70 °C and atmospheric pressure, applying two polarization regimes: long-term polarization (LP) and intermittent polarization (IP).

Electrochemical characterization and LP tests used three-electrode cells with a 0.95 cm² active area, Pt counter electrodes, and a reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE), connected to an Autolab PGSTAT302N potentiostat.

For hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), a current density of −150 mA cm⁻² was applied for up to 100 h to assess surface activation and long-term stability. The formation of active species was monitored by cyclic voltammetry at 25, 50, and 100 h of testing. For oxygen evolution reaction (OER), +150 mA cm⁻² was applied, evaluating the formation of β-NiOOH and anodic activation via cyclic voltammetry, polarization curves, and chronopotentiometry.

IP tests were performed in 10 cm² AWE cells on a CNH2-designed test bench, following the criteria defined by the JRC (Joint Research Centre) and using open-access data from the Belgian electricity grid. A simulated PV profile was applied over 100 h to replicate daily cycles consisting of 11 h of daylight (0.01–1.5 A) and 13 h of night (0 A). After testing, electrodes were characterized through cyclic voltammetry, morphological analysis, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to identify surface species (nickel hydroxides, oxyhydroxides, and oxides) associated with performance improvements.

Results and Discussion

Results show progressive electrochemical activation of Ni200 electrodes under both regimes. In cathodic conditions, LP reduced the HER overpotential by up to 20 mV, associated with α-Ni(OH)₂ formation, as seen in cyclic voltammetry [2,4]. IP produced similar improvements after several cycles without degradation, showing that surface activation persists under dynamic conditions [5].

Anodic tests showed an increase in the redox peak corresponding to β-Ni(OH)₂ → β-NiOOH after 100 h of LP, with OER potential decreasing to ~1.4 V vs. RHE [3,4]. IP led to a potential decrease of ~300 mV after one day, reducing activation overpotential [5]. Polarization curves revealed a passivation region between 1.0 and 1.5 V vs. RHE, linked to Ni³⁺ species (β-NiOOH) formation, which likely stabilizes the surface and improves OER durability [3,4]. Additionally, iron traces originating from KOH impurities were detected by ICP analysis, contributing to an enhanced electrode performance, as confirmed by long-term testing.

Conclusions

This study highlights the effects of constant and intermittent polarization on Ni electrodes in alkaline water electrolysis. At the anode, polarization promotes β-NiOOH formation, reducing the OER overpotential and improving electrocatalytic performance [3]. At the cathode, surface activation of Ni200 via α-Ni(OH)₂ lowers the HER overpotential, although phase stability may influence long-term durability [2,4]. These results demonstrate that simple polarization strategies can effectively activate Ni electrodes under dynamic conditions, advancing the understanding of Ni electrode behaviour for renewable energy applications [2,3,5].

References

[1] Yue, M.; Lambert, H.; Pahon, E.; Roche, R.; Jemei, S.; Hissel, D. Hydrogen energy systems: A critical review of technologies, applications, trends and challenges. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2021, 146, 111180.

[2] Xue, S.; Liang, Y.; Hou, S.; Zhang, Y.; Jiang, H. Alpha-Nickel Hydroxide Coating of Metallic Nickel for Enhanced Alkaline Hydrogen Evolution. ChemSusChem 2022, 15, e202201072.

[3] Danilovic, N.; Subbaraman, R.; Strmcnik, D.; Chang, K.C.; Paulikas, A.P.; Stamenkovic, V.R.; Markovic, N.M. Enhancing the alkaline hydrogen evolution reaction activity through the bifunctionality of Ni(OH)₂/metal catalysts. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2012, 51, 12495–12498.

[4] De Groot, M.T. Curr. Opin. Chem. Eng. 2023, 42, 100981.

[5] Rocha, F.; Delmelle, R.; Georgiadis, C.; Proost, J. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2022, 10, 107648–107659.

Electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs) are increasingly recognized as energy-efficient and sustainable solutions for the treatment of industrial and municipal wastewater, particularly for the removal of recalcitrant organic pollutants that are often resistant to conventional treatment methods. Among these, Galvano-Fenton systems, which exploit the spontaneous corrosion of iron coupled with cathodic catalysis, offer the unique advantage of combining pollutant degradation with in situ electrical energy generation, thereby eliminating the need for external power sources and contributing to more sustainable operation. In this study, a Galvano-Fenton system based on a galvanic Fe/Cu electrode configuration was systematically investigated to evaluate both its environmental and energetic performance under controlled laboratory conditions. The system enables continuous production of ferrous ions and highly reactive hydroxyl radicals, facilitating efficient degradation of organic contaminants under mild operating conditions while minimizing chemical consumption.

Special attention was paid to electrode design and configuration. The effects of increasing cathode surface area relative to the anode, electrode material selection, and cathode-to-anode surface area ratios (ranging from 1:1 to 6:1) were examined in detail. Key operating parameters, including solution pH (2–3), hydrogen peroxide concentration (3 mM), and reaction time (up to 60 minutes), were optimized in terms of pollutant removal efficiency, reaction kinetics, and electrical power output. Results demonstrated that enlarging the cathode surface significantly enhances electrical energy generation, achieving power densities of up to 220 mW·m⁻², currents of 1.5–2 mA, and potentials reaching 0.85 V. Simultaneously, malachite green degradation efficiencies were maintained at very high levels (98–100%), highlighting the system’s excellent catalytic performance, operational stability, and potential for scale-up.

Overall, this work demonstrates the dual environmental and energetic functionality of the Galvano-Fenton process. The findings underscore the critical role of electrode configuration in maximizing energy recovery while maintaining high pollutant degradation efficiency. The study provides valuable insights for the rational design of sustainable electrochemical wastewater treatment technologies, bridging the gap between laboratory-scale research and potential real-world applications in energy-positive and resource-efficient wastewater management.

This paper analyzes some of the potential synergies among energy, transport, and climate action in the European Union, using Sustainable Development Goals SDG-7 (affordable and clean energy), SDG-9 (industry, innovation, and infrastructure), and SDG-13 (climate action) as analytical frameworks for assessing the coherence and progress of the green transition. Eurostat data from 2015 to 2024 are used to analyze trends in primary energy production, gross inland consumption, energy intensity of GDP, vehicle fleet composition, road freight transport, net greenhouse gas emissions, and private investment in climate change mitigation.

The results indicate a gradual and inconsistent energy transition among Member States, characterized by declining primary energy production and stable gross inland consumption, along with reduced energy intensity, suggesting partial decoupling of economic growth from energy use. Trend changes such as energy security challenges, especially for economies with high import dependence, highlight tensions among efficiency, competitiveness, and energy autonomy. In the transport sector, a dual transition is evident, with internal-combustion-engine vehicles continuing to dominate the fleet, reflecting structural inertia that slows decarbonization. Since 2019, electric vehicle adoption has grown rapidly, demonstrating the impact of public policies, financial incentives, and technological advances. The effectiveness of electric mobility in reducing emissions depends on the energy mix and the infrastructure's capacity to support large-scale electrification.

Road freight transport is critical for achieving SDG 13, as increasing transport volumes drive higher fossil fuel consumption and emissions, and the ongoing trend reveals the current limitations of modal shift and freight electrification, emphasizing the need for integrated policies that modernize infrastructure, improve energy efficiency, and diversify energy sources. Analysis of net greenhouse gas emissions from 2018 to 2024 shows a temporary reduction in 2020, followed by a moderate rebound, with most countries not returning to pre-pandemic levels. Private investment in climate change mitigation remains focused on the energy and transport sectors, confirming their interdependence in the decarbonization process.

The energy and climate transition within the European Union represents a complex process with substantial implications for achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 7, 9, and 13, and attaining these objectives requires a systemic approach that integrates energy, industrial, and transport policies to ensure long-term compatibility among economic growth, energy security, and climate neutrality.

Introduction

Biofuels are, and will remain, essential components of sustainable mobility. Their future deployment, however, depends on the availability of sustainable feedstocks, the maturity of conversion technologies, and the stringent EU regulatory framework governing emissions. The objective of this study is to quantitatively assess the performance of multiple biorefinery pathways for liquid biofuel production. Evaluations are intended to inform the feasibility assessment of an innovative sustainable mobility system, the Off‑Board Hybrid [1], consisting of a liquid‑biofuel‑fired electric generator operating in island mode and coupled to electric vehicle charging stations.

Methods

We processed modeling yields, energy consumption, utility needs, and equipment sizing for each biofuel production pathway. To ensure comparability, costs are typically expressed in €/GJ of fuel, as different biofuel types have highly variable energy densities (e.g., 44 MJ/kg for renewable diesel vs. <20 MJ/kg for biomethanol) [2]. These approaches reveal, for example, that biofuels from dedicated crops face high cultivation emissions unless marginal/contaminated lands are valorized.

Results

Energy yield measures energy recovery from feedstock to biofuel, highlighting the clear superiority of catalytic processes from vegetable oils [3] over thermochemical or biochemical routes from lignocellulosics. This is largely due to the higher energy content (LHV of the feedstock) and purity (triglycerides) of oils. Catalytic oil-based processes remain the best performers, but its gap with others narrows. Some thermochemical routes with targeted inputs (biocrude, pyro-oil, EtOH) gain competitiveness, showing sensitivity to reliance on supplementary energy vectors—even for non-oil biofuels (MeOH via enrichment).

Conclusions

The results provide a quantitative comparison of the techno‑economic and environmental performance of the examined pathways and identify feedstock, scale and integration conditions that enhance pathway competitiveness. Evaluations are intended to inform the feasibility assessment of an innovative sustainable mobility system, the Off‑Board Hybrid.

1. Giuliano, A.; Brancaccio, D.; Ricca, A.; Polverino, P.; De Bari, I. Biofuels for an Off-Board Hybrid Solution Avoiding the Overloading of the Electricity Grid Producing Power for a More Sustainable Mobility. Chemical Engineering Transactions 2025, 119.
2. Lombardelli, G.; Scaccabarozzi, R.; Conversano, A.; Gatti, M. Bio-Methanol with Negative CO2 Emissions from Residual Forestry Biomass Gasification: Modelling and Techno-Economic Assessment of Different Process Configurations. Biomass and Bioenergy 2024, 188, 107315, doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2024.107315.
3. Fiore, A.M.; Romanazzi, G.; Leonelli, C.; Mastrorilli, P.; Dell’Anna, M.M. Partial Hydrogenation of Soybean and Waste Cooking Oil Biodiesel over Recyclable-Polymer-Supported Pd and Ni Nanoparticles. Catalysts 2022, 12, 506, doi:10.3390/catal12050506.

Introduction

With the aim of recovering waste for the production of alternative fuels, Centro Nacional del Hidrógeno (CNH2), Fundación CIDAUT and the University of Valladolid are participating in a project focused on the development of lignocellulosic biomass oxy-gasification technology.

The process consists of a first pyrolysis stage, heating the biomass by burning part of the recirculated synthesis gas, and a second stage carried out in an EFG (Entrained Flow Gasification) reactor, in which the high operating temperatures achieved by using oxygen as a gasifying agent facilitate the reaction of solids and the decomposition of tars and heavy hydrocarbons, as well as the production of a synthesis gas with a higher calorific value relative to air-based gasification technologies.

This synthesis gas is converted into synthetic fuels, such as petrol or SAF, using a Fischer–Tropsch process. Additional inputs to both reactors are oxygen and hydrogen, respectively. Both gases are obtained from an alkaline electrolyser, achieving total integration between the processes.

This work focuses on pyrolysis and oxy-gasification; therefore, no modelling results for electrolysis or the Fischer–Tropsch process are presented.

Methods

In order to optimise the process and design and size the equipment, a pyrolysis model was developed in 0D and 1D, and a model of the complete process in 1D and 3D, which includes both pyrolysis and gasification of pine wood chips. This approach allows an initial prediction of the behaviour of the system with the use of other types of biomass.

The pyrolysis model was constructed based on the kinetic model proposed by E. Ranzi [1], which details all the reactions involved in the process. It was developed in both Visual Basic for Applications and Python. In both cases, the results were validated using information available in the literature and through thermogravimetric tests.

The 1D model of the complete process, programmed in C++, enabled rapid parametric studies of the EFG to be carried out to determine its optimal dimensions (diameter and length) in accordance with efficiency requirements, mechanical design and maximum permissible dimensions. It also provides the necessary boundary conditions (mass flow, composition and temperature of the gases at the EFG inlet) to be entered into the 3D model.

The 3D model, created in ANSYS Fluent, which is more computationally expensive, provides detailed information on the behaviour of the fluid inside the reactor. A reactor mesh was generated, with the dimensions considered optimal for the EFG through parametric study, and the boundary conditions obtained at the EFG inlet of the 1D model are introduced so that the two models are similar.

The main methodological contribution of this work lies in the development of a coupled multiscale modelling framework that integrates detailed kinetic pyrolysis modelling with rapid 1D reactor optimisation and CFD-consistent 3D validation for entrained-flow gasifier design within an integrated process for the production of synthetic fuels from biomass.

Results

Simulations were carried out using the pyrolysis model, which enabled the endothermic nature of the process to be analysed through the evolution of temperature in an adiabatic system. In addition, an estimated 50% tar and 12% char production was calculated, as well as the calorific power required for the pyrolyser.

The results obtained from the simulations of the complete 1D and 3D models carried out with the optimal design geometry and a feed rate of 50 kg/h of pine wood chips have been compared, obtaining a flow rate of 81.11 kg/h of synthesis gas with a composition (dry basis) of 59.14% CO, 27.92% H₂, 10.52% CO₂ and 2.41% CH₄, corresponding to a lower heating value (LHV) of approximately 11.3 MJ/Nm3.

Conclusion

The proposed framework supports the design and pilot-scale integration of an oxy-gasification unit coupled with downstream Fischer–Tropsch synthesis and on-site electrolysis.

Regarding the estimation of the heat output required in the pyrolyser, the results obtained are very close to those published by other researchers in the same field [2]. The results obtained from the 1D and 3D models allow the EFG and pyrolyser to be dimensioned, the recirculated gas and oxygen flow rates to be added at the different stages to be defined, and the size of the carbon particles entering the reactor to be determined, thereby achieving an acceptable degree of solid-to-gas conversion.

References

[1] Ranzi, E. et al.: “Chemical kinetics of biomass pyrolysis,” Energy and Fuels, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 4292–4300, Nov. 2008,

[2] Daugaard, D. E. and Brown, R. C.: “Enthalpy for pyrolysis for several types of biomass,” Energy and Fuels, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 934–939, Jul. 2003,

Introduction:

Energy represents the primary catalyst for economic and social development. Demographic growth and industrial progress demand an uninterrupted increase in generation capacity. The Brazilian electric sector operates a matrix based on renewable sources, but the system faces continuous market pressures to reduce carbon emissions and expand its reach. Innovation acts as the main tool to guarantee this sustainable progress. This study executes an audit on the national energy sector, analyzing the structural tension between the high physical generation potential and the institutional restrictions. The research maps the transition from the fossil model to clean operation matrices, highlighting the barriers that prevent the solidification of renewable energy proposals.

Methods:

The methodological approach employs a systematic bibliographic review, complemented by the strict metric analysis of databases. The researchers extracted industrial deposit data from the National Institute of Industrial Property (INPI) and the European Patent Office (Espacenet). The extraction aims to quantify the technological protection efforts of universities and research centers. The work evaluated the competitive position of the country through the Global Innovation Index (GII) between the editions of 2013 and 2022. The financial balance documented the capital flow of the Sectoral Fund for Electricity (CT-Energia), managed by the Financier of Studies and Projects (FINEP). Monti (2015) defends the urgency of renewable technologies, and Barbieri (2020) attests the superiority of the inventive model of developed nations.

Results:

The compilation of statistical data exposes a strong disconnection between the geographical vocation and the destination of financial promotion. The volume of patent registration for renewable sources reached the exact mark of 106 requests in the year of 2019. The Northeast region hosts the main wind and solar generation complexes in the national territory. The production of technical knowledge is confined to the academic institutions of the South and Southeast regions. The official report of the Global Innovation Index allocated the country in the 54th general position during the year of 2022. The knowledge creation indicator exhibited an ascending evolution, but the generation infrastructure and the innovation linkages remain immobilized in the lower positions of the table. The budgetary fluctuation justifies the failure of this technological integration. The CT-Energia fund has faced gradual liquidity cuts since 2015. The 2022 budget approved an injection of R$ 113.6 million, but the projection for 2023 retracted the cash to only R$ 9.83 million. The energy modernization edicts receive slices inferior to 2% of the total revenue of the development fund.

Conclusion:

The renewal of the electric system dictates the rules of the productive capacity advance and social inclusion. The structural base of the state sustains a diversified matrix under the regulation of inspection agencies. The conversion of laboratory inventions into practical products requires the mathematical stabilization of the public fund. The government inspection needs to ensure the uninterrupted transfer of the net revenue of the concessionaires to the researchers. The Ministry of Mines and Energy and the National Electric Energy Agency (ANEEL) must use these indicators to reorganize the tax allocation of energy distributors. Corporate managers must foster the creation of direct consortiums with local universities. The full progress of the green matrix occurs when the legislation aligns the university talent with the problems of the generating plants. The formulation of a new energy policy obliges the agile and decentralized release of the research capital. This action guides the decision-making of the sector stakeholders to optimize costs and democratize access.