Introduction
Urban energy management in Zambia is experiencing both a pressing demand for energy infrastructure expansion and a potential for innovative, data-driven solutions. As it stands, only 43% of the Zambian population is connected to the national power grid, with an urban–rural divide of 67% and 14.5%. Over-reliance on hydropower, which accounts for about 80% of the country's electricity, represents a critical vulnerability to climate change. A severe drought in the 2023/24 period led to an 80% reduction in electricity production from Lake Kariba, leaving Lusaka residents with up to 20 hours of daily power outages. This has led to a need for smarter energy management systems that can optimise limited resources, anticipate energy needs, and incorporate distributed renewable energy sources. The National Digital Transformation Strategy 2023–2027 and Vision 2030 framework have laid the foundation for AI adoption, digital twin technologies, and data-driven decision support systems. The Ministry of Technology and Science has stated that 'digital transformation is as much about technology as it is about people, equality and the just distribution of resources and sustainable development.' This paper will investigate the feasibility, implementation considerations, and contextual adaptation required for the use of AI to support urban energy management systems in Zambia, focusing on aspects such as solar photovoltaic (PV) integration, demand-side management, and smart grid frameworks.

Methods
The study was conducted through a literature review, document review, and case study analysis. The literature review focused on AI in smart energy systems, digital twins for infrastructure management, and smart city projects in Sub-Saharan Africa. The document review focused on Zambia's National Energy Policy, National Digital Transformation Strategy, Integrated Resource Plan, and related regulations and policies for electricity generation and distribution. Case study analysis covered smart energy projects in Africa, including Kenya's renewable energy diversification, Rwanda's smart grid pilots, and Zambia's Smart Village project. Findings were synthesised and presented under four thematic areas: technological readiness and infrastructure; institutional and regulatory frameworks; human capacity and skills; and financing and investment. Attention was given to digital twin modelling for Zambia's electricity distribution grid and to the evaluation of machine learning algorithms for solar irradiance prediction, given Zambia's high solar resource.

Results
There are strong opportunities for AI solutions in the Zambian energy management space, but multiple challenges remain for project implementation. Machine learning models for load forecasting, particularly for shorter horizons, have established technical viability; this capacity to model and predict load behaviour on the grid enables more efficient management of generation units. Digital twin technology has strong applications for network simulation in Zambian cities, particularly Lusaka, enabling scenario modelling such as fault analysis, technical loss quantification, and network reconfiguration without physical intervention. Solar irradiance prediction tools for distributed solar photovoltaic (PV) integration are highly beneficial to Zambia's national target of 1,000 megawatt (MW) solar PV capacity by 2025 and the related task of addressing solar PV generation intermittency. Local challenges that persist in the context of AI include low internet penetration in peri-urban environments, limiting the viability of IoT-connected sensor nodes; skill and experience gaps in local human capital, resulting in a bottleneck for system upkeep and tuning of machine learning models; and a lack of financial capital to deploy these use cases, such as smart meter rollouts. National fibre coverage for smart city projects across Lusaka and other major cities, such as those aligned with DTRA's smart poles, which include micro base stations and 4G/5G connectivity, provides a technological foundation for scaling up but is not yet broad enough to be deployed outside business districts. The UNDP initiative, Timbuktoo AI Compute Nodes, aims to provide nations in Africa, including Zambia, with their own sovereign AI computer cloud powered by renewable energy and could set precedents for regional and local AI capacity-building that integrate environmental and sustainability goals. Policy development for data privacy and security is needed, as well as regulation for decentralised models such as peer-to-peer energy trading.

Conclusions
Incorporating AI, digital twins, and data-driven decision support into ZESCO's operations is a forward-thinking approach that can potentially revolutionise urban energy management in Zambia. These technologies promise to optimise energy distribution and consumption, even within the constraints of existing infrastructure, while also facilitating large-scale integration of renewable energy. This can be achieved through a combination of strategic actions, including the deployment of smart grid technologies, investment in human capital, modernisation of regulatory frameworks, and mobilisation of innovative financing mechanisms. Immediate priorities could include establishing pilot digital twin projects for specific urban distribution networks, developing machine learning models tailored to Zambian load and generation data, and building technical capacity within ZESCO and municipal authorities. Leveraging international partnerships and knowledge transfer can also expedite progress while ensuring contextual relevance. As Zambia advances towards its Vision 2030 development goals, intelligent energy systems are not just technological enhancements but fundamental drivers of inclusive and sustainable urban growth.

The escalating global water–energy nexus crisis necessitates the urgent development of resource-efficient desalination technologies that bypass the carbon-intensive footprints of traditional thermal and membrane-based processes. Current electrochemical deionization frameworks, such as Capacitive Deionization (CDI) and Battery Electrode Deionization (BDI), are often hindered by the high synthesis costs and environmental liabilities associated with synthetic, petroleum-derived electrode materials, which frequently exhibit suboptimal ion-transport kinetics under varying operational regimes. To address these critical bottlenecks, this research explores the pyrolytic transformation of Arenga pinnata (Kaong) nutshells—an abundant agricultural byproduct—into a high-performance, bio-based porous carbon cathodes for integration into advanced BDI architectures. The study focuses on leveraging the inherent lignocellulosic microstructure of the Kaong precursor to synthesize a hierarchically porous membrane capable of efficient NaCl sequestration. The experimental methodology involved the systematic evaluation of the synthesized cathode’s performance metrics, specifically focusing on ion removal efficiency, effluent stream concentration profiles, and Salt Absorption Capacity (SAC). A multi-parametric analysis was conducted to examine the influence of hydrodynamic and thermodynamic variables, namely volumetric flow rates and system temperatures, on the electrosorption phenomena. Statistical validation was rigorously performed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) tests to ensure the reproducibility and significance of the observed data. The results reveal a significant inverse relationship between operational temperature, flow velocity, and SAC; specifically, lower thermal environments were found to significantly enhance electrode wettability and ion-trapping stability. The optimal performance threshold was identified at a temperature of 15 °C and a flow rate of 5 mL/min, conditions which facilitated maximum desalination efficiency through improved interfacial contact and reduced ionic mobility resistance. Ultimately, the findings highlight the viability of Arenga pinnata-derived bio-carbons as sustainable, cost-effective alternatives to conventional electrodes, promoting a circular economy model within the water–energy sector. This study provides a foundational blueprint for future innovations in long-term electrode stability and the application of bio-electrochemical systems in treating diverse feed water sources, contributing to the advancement of sustainable materials in the global transition toward smart energy management.

The ubiquity of conventional petroleum diesel in the global transport and industrial sectors has precipitated a critical environmental crisis characterized by the excessive discharge of hazardous pollutants such as nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, and carbon-based greenhouse gases. Despite the current energy transition emphasizing the adoption of bio-based oxygenates like coconut methyl ester (CME) and ethanol to dilute the carbon intensity of fossil fuels, these biological additives often present challenges regarding lower energy density and altered combustion kinetics that can lead to suboptimal engine performance. To address these limitations, the present study proposes the development of a technologically advanced and marketable eco-friendly diesel alternative through the strategic integration of zinc oxide (ZnO) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles as high-performance fuel additives to stabilize and enhance ternary blends. The experimental methodology involved the formulation of a base mixture consisting of 10% coco methyl ester and 5% ethanol, which was subsequently homogenized with ZnO and TiO2 at precise concentrations of 10, 20, and 30 parts per million (ppm) using magnetic stirring techniques. This nano-doped matrix was then integrated into 85% pure diesel using a high-shear mixer to ensure uniform particle distribution. Following ASTM-standardized protocols, five distinct samples underwent comprehensive physicochemical property testing to evaluate the impact of nano-augmentation. The results and discussion highlighted a significant enhancement in thermophysical characteristics, particularly for the D85B10E5ZnO20TiO220 blend, which exhibited the highest calorific value recorded at 6702.51 cal/g, notably outperforming binary variants. Engine performance diagnostics revealed that the 20 ppm dual-nanoparticle configuration achieved a brake thermal efficiency of 24.25% and demonstrated a 12.85% increase in brake-specific fuel consumption. Crucially, emission analysis revealed profound reductions in carbon dioxide (414.94%) and carbon monoxide (145.58%) compared to baseline D100 diesel. In conclusion, this study underscores the decisive advantages of nanoparticle inclusion in multi-component fuel systems for optimizing combustion efficiency and atmospheric safety. It is recommended that this formulation be further scaled for commercial viability as a sustainable alternative to pure fossil fuels.

Aluminium hydride (AlH₃) is a promising solid-state hydrogen storage material due to its high theoretical capacity of 10.1 wt.% H₂. However, its practical use is limited by a high decomposition onset temperature and slow desorption kinetics. This study introduces titanium silicate (TiSiO₄) as a novel catalytic dopant to address these challenges. A composite of 10 wt.% TiSiO₄–AlH₃ was prepared via planetary ball milling under an argon atmosphere. The dehydrogenation behavior was systematically investigated using temperature-programmed desorption (TPD), isothermal kinetics measurements, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The incorporation of TiSiO₄ profoundly enhanced the dehydrogenation performance. TPD revealed that the onset temperature for hydrogen release dropped from 127 °C for milled AlH₃ to below 50 °C—a reduction exceeding 77 °C. Isothermal desorption at 60 °C showed that the doped composite released about 2.1 wt.% H₂ within the first hour, while the undoped material was nearly inert. Kissinger analysis of DSC data indicated a substantial decrease in the apparent activation energy by 46.6 kJ/mol, confirming a lowered kinetic barrier. Mechanistic studies revealed a synergistic two-part effect of TiSiO₄. Although not directly detected by XRD due to its low content and possible amorphous nature, TiSiO₄ is proposed to electronically polarize and weaken Al–H bonds at the surface, facilitating initial bond cleavage. Simultaneously, SEM and XRD evidence indicates that TiSiO₄ acts as a nanostructuring agent, dispersing AlH₃ into finer particles during milling and heating. This creates a nanoconfinement effect that shortens hydrogen diffusion paths, suppresses agglomeration of AlH₃ and metallic Al during decomposition, and provides nucleation sites for Al formation—a critical step in the decomposition pathway. In summary, TiSiO₄ doping introduces a dual catalytic and nanoconfinement mechanism that destabilizes AlH₃, significantly lowers its decomposition temperature, and accelerates hydrogen release kinetics. This work not only identifies TiSiO₄ as an effective catalyst for AlH₃ but also provides a mechanistic framework that highlights the value of composite design in advancing metal hydrides for practical hydrogen storage.

The fast evolution of smart and adaptive energy systems has intensified the demand for multifunctional materials capable of integrating energy storage, memory, and reconfigurable behavior within a single platform. Conventional capacitive devices, while effective for energy storage, lack the ability to retain information about their previous electrical states. In this context, memcapacitive systems have emerged as a promising class of components that combine capacitive functionality with memory effects, enabling adaptive and history-dependent responses.

In this work, we investigate memcapacitive behavior in thin-film devices based on zinc oxide (ZnO) and magnesium (Mg) [1] deposited on flexible polymer substrates. The use of polymeric substrates enables mechanical flexibility and lightweight architectures, while ZnO offers a wide bandgap, high dielectric stability, and defect-mediated charge transport properties. Magnesium is introduced as an active material to modulate dielectric response, defect density, and interfacial polarization through different structural configurations, including layered and mixed thin-film arrangements. All films were fabricated using sputtering techniques, allowing precise control over thickness and deposition parameters.

Electrical characterization was performed using current–voltage (I–V) measurements and frequency response analysis (FRA) over a broad frequency range. The devices exhibited nonlinear charge–voltage relationships, frequency-dependent capacitance, and hysteresis loops that cannot be described by conventional linear capacitors. These features are consistent with memcapacitive behavior, where the instantaneous capacitance depends on the history of the applied electrical stimulus. The incorporation of Mg was found to significantly influence the electrical response, suggesting tunability of memory retention and switching characteristics through material design.

Complementary structural and morphological analyses, including techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), are employed to correlate electrical behavior with crystalline structure, film uniformity, and defect-related mechanisms. The observed memcapacitive effects are attributed to interfacial charge trapping, defect migration, and polarization processes within the ZnO–Mg thin-film system.

This study establishes a material-driven approach toward adaptive energy interfaces, where energy storage and memory functionalities coexist within flexible platforms. Such devices are highly relevant for low-power electronics, neuromorphic systems, wearable technologies, and intelligent energy-aware architectures. Future work will focus on optimizing ZnO–Mg configurations, improving device stability, and exploring scalable integration strategies for next-generation smart energy systems.

[1] Lv, Y., Guo, X., Li, X. et al. Coexistence of memristive and memcapacitive characteristics in Pt/MgO/ZnO metal-insulator-semiconductor heterostructure device. Appl. Phys. A 131, 251 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-025-08368-3

Polymer-based materials are attractive for energy applications due to their low density, mechanical flexibility, and ease of processing; however, their intrinsically low thermal conductivity, limited dielectric performance, and weak ultraviolet (UV) resistance restrict their functionality in advanced energy and electronic systems. To overcome these limitations, this study reports the development of β-silicon carbide (β-SiC) reinforced isotactic polypropylene (PP) nanocomposites designed to achieve enhanced multifunctional properties relevant to modern energy technologies and applications.

β- silicon carbide nanostructures were synthesized via high-temperature carbothermal methods and incorporated into the PP matrix at controlled filler loadings using melt blending followed by compression molding. This approach ensured uniform filler dispersion and strong interfacial interactions, which are critical for effective property enhancement, mechanical stability, and long-term performance. Structural characterization by X-ray diffraction confirmed the retention of the cubic β-SiC phase, while scanning electron microscopy revealed nanoscale filler distribution and good adhesion at the filler–matrix interface. Optical absorption measurements indicated a direct band gap of 5.76 eV for the nanocomposites, slightly higher than that of pristine β-SiC, suggesting modification of electronic states due to polymer–filler interactions and interfacial effects.

Dielectric measurements showed a notable increase in relative permittivity and energy storage capability compared to neat PP, attributed primarily to Maxwell–Wagner–Sillars interfacial polarization. Incorporation of β-SiC also improved thermal conductivity, supporting enhanced heat dissipation, and significantly increased UV absorption, demonstrating potential for solar shielding and protective energy applications.

The novelty of this work lies in the simultaneous improvement of dielectric, thermal, and optical functionalities within a lightweight polymer matrix, achieved through controlled interfacial engineering and conventional processing techniques. These multifunctional β-SiC/PP nanocomposites provide a versatile platform for dielectric films, thermal management layers, capacitive energy storage devices, and solar energy applications. Overall, this study offers new insights into designing high-performance, environmentally sustainable, and efficient polymer nanocomposites for advanced energy-related technologies.

The remarkable electrical and optical properties of lead halide perovskites have made them potential materials for next-generation optoelectronic applications. This work uses first-principles density functional theory using Quantum Espresso to conduct a thorough theoretical investigation of the electro-optical properties of hybrid and inorganic perovskites FAPbX₃ and CsPbX₃ (X = Cl, Br, I). Through geometry optimization, the compounds' structural stability is examined, yielding accurate equilibrium lattice parameters for ensuing electronic and optical computations. All compositions show a direct band gap nature, with the band gap values largely reliant on the halide anion, according to calculations of the electronic band structure and density of states. The adaptability of these materials for optoelectronic design is demonstrated by the continuous band gap tuning from the ultraviolet to the visible range made possible by systematic halide replacement.

Calculations of the frequency-dependent dielectric function, absorption coefficient, refractive index, reflectivity, and optical conductivity are used to assess optical characteristics. The findings show a high dielectric response and significant optical absorption in the visible spectrum, suggesting effective light–matter interaction. Lattice expansion and stronger orbital hybridization are responsible for the slightly reduced band gaps and improved optical absorption of FAPbX₃ perovskites when compared to their inorganic counterparts CsPbX₃, according to a comparative analysis. It is discovered that the electro-optical response is extremely sensitive to the halide composition, providing a feasible route for band gap engineering and optimizing optical performance. Furthermore, the calculated optical parameters indicate favorable transparency–absorption trade-offs, which are crucial for efficient optoelectronic device performance. The present theoretical results are expected to serve as a useful reference for future experimental validation and material optimization. This study thus contributes to a deeper understanding of structure–property relationships in lead halide perovskites from a purely first-principles perspective. All things considered, this first-principles investigation offers basic understanding of the electrical structure and electro-optical behavior of FAPbX₃ and CsPbX₃ perovskites. The results highlight the promise of inorganic and hybrid lead halide perovskites for use in photovoltaics, light-emitting devices, and photodetectors and provide theoretical direction for the logical design of high-performance optoelectronic materials.

Abstract

Physical-based hydrogen storage technologies are among the most promising pathways toward achieving global energy transition goals by 2050, particularly for transportation and large-scale energy infrastructure. Compressed gaseous and cryo-compressed hydrogen storage systems require structural materials capable of safely operating under high pressures, cryogenic temperatures, or a combination of both. In this context, the selection of advanced structural materials is critical to ensuring the safety, durability, and economic feasibility of hydrogen energy systems. Austenitic stainless steels (ASSs), especially AISI 304, are widely considered for hydrogen storage vessels and associated components due to their excellent corrosion resistance, resistance to hydrogen embrittlement, good weldability, and cost-effectiveness. The rapid advancement of hydrogen energy technologies necessitates a detailed understanding of material behavior under service-relevant extreme environments. Although AISI 304 is commonly used in hydrogen-related applications, its mechanical response at sub-ambient and cryogenic temperatures remains insufficiently characterized for reliable material selection and design of next-generation hydrogen infrastructure. This study systematically investigates the low-temperature mechanical behavior of AISI 304 austenitic stainless steel to evaluate its suitability for hydrogen storage and transport systems. Uniaxial tensile tests were performed at temperatures ranging from ambient room temperature (298 K) down to −80 °C (193 K) using a universal testing machine integrated with a controlled cooling chamber. A constant strain rate of 10⁻³ s⁻¹ was applied to isolate the influence of temperature on the mechanical response. The results demonstrate a pronounced temperature dependence of strength and ductility. The ultimate tensile strength increased linearly from 785 MPa at 298 K to 1210 MPa at 193 K, corresponding to a 54.2% enhancement, while the yield strength showed a moderate increase from 690 MPa to 740 MPa (7.25%). Although uniform elongation decreased with decreasing temperature, fracture behavior remained predominantly ductile. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis of fracture surfaces revealed well-defined dimpled morphologies across all testing temperatures, including cryogenic conditions, indicating sustained energy absorption capability and resistance to brittle failure. These findings suggest that AISI 304 not only maintains but significantly enhances its strength at low temperatures while preserving acceptable ductility, a critical requirement for safe hydrogen storage systems. The novelty of this work lies in the systematic correlation of cryogenic tensile properties and fracture mechanisms of AISI 304 with the performance requirements of hydrogen energy infrastructure. The demonstrated combination of enhanced strength and retained toughness highlights the potential of AISI 304 as a reliable structural material for advanced hydrogen storage applications, contributing to the safe and efficient deployment of hydrogen technologies in future energy systems.

Phase Change Materials (PCMs) are substances that store and release thermal energy through reversible solid-liquid phase transitions. In recent years, PCMs have received increased attention as effective components in thermal energy storage systems. Using PCMs across different technologies can improve thermal energy storage, reduce dependence on conventional energy sources, lower greenhouse gas emissions, and support global sustainability and energy efficiency objectives. These materials can maintain a stable temperature during phase transitions while absorbing or releasing latent heat. This characteristic enables PCMs to regulate temperature changes, making them suitable for applications such as passive thermal storage, solar energy systems, and building energy optimization. In building envelopes, they improve thermal inertia, reducing indoor temperature variations and heating or cooling demands. The same goes for solar energy systems; PCMs store excess solar heat during peak periods and release it when energy demand rises, improving overall system efficiency.

PCMs are classified into three main categories: organic, inorganic, and eutectic materials. Organic PCMs, like paraffins and fatty acids, are characterized by their chemical stability; they are non-corrosive and have congruent melting points, but they have low thermal conductivity and low latent heat in certain high-demanding applications. Inorganic PCMs, especially hydrated salts, offer high latent heat storage capacity and improved thermal conductivity. This particular aspect makes them attractive for medium- or high-temperature energy storage. Aside from these advantages, inorganic PCMs often have drawbacks such as phase separation, supercooling, or corrosive behavior. Eutectic PCMs combine two or more components to achieve specific melting temperatures and improved thermal stability, effectively merging the advantages of both organic and inorganic materials.

In this paper, a comparative study is presented about the most common studied inorganic hydrated salts, such as: magnesium nitrate hexahydrate (Mg(NO₃)₂·6H₂O), lithium nitrate trihydrate (LiNO₃·3H₂O), sodium sulfate decahydrate (Na₂SO₄·10H₂O), calcium nitrate tetrahydrate (Ca(NO₃)₂·4H₂O), calcium chloride hexahydrate (CaCl₂·6H₂O), magnesium chloride hexahydrate (MgCl₂·6H₂O), sodium acetate trihydrate (CH₃COONa·3H₂O) and their eutectic mixtures. These materials exhibit melting temperatures ranging from 29 °C to over 100 °C, making them suitable for a wide range of thermal applications. For example, calcium chloride hexahydrate melts around 29 °C with a latent heat of approximately 190 kJ/kg but presents corrosion and supercooling issues. Sodium sulfate decahydrate offers a higher latent heat (about 230 J/g) and a melting range of 30–35 °C, though it is exposed to phase separation and leakage. Sodium acetate trihydrate has a melting temperature of approximately 58 °C and a high latent heat of 264 kJ/kg, but can exhibit supercooling and segregation phenomena. Magnesium-based hydrated salts, such as magnesium nitrate and magnesium chloride hexahydrates, operate over a wider temperature range and provide improved thermal storage capacity, although supercooling remains a significant limitation.

Improving property stabilization is a common method used for phase change material systems. Expanded graphite used as an additive was reported to improve thermal stability and heat transfer performance. Microencapsulation is a method used to prevent leakage during phase transitions and to improve thermal reliability.

To establish the properties of the considered hydrate salts, this paper analyzed: DSC for determining melting temperatures and latent heat values; TGA for thermal stability and degradation behavior; SEM for structural and morphological analysis; and XRD and FTIR to confirm chemical composition and compatibility between the PCM cores and the encapsulated materials.

In conclusion, inorganic hydrated salts and their eutectics have significant potential for thermal energy storage and energy efficiency applications due to their high latent heat and favorable thermal properties. Single or eutectic formulations presented in this paper represent an important research focus for enhancing their performance and enabling the implementation of PCMs in sustainable energy systems.

The increasing demand for sustainable and renewable energy technologies necessitates the development of efficient, durable, and high-performance energy storage systems to support modern electronic devices and renewable power integration. Among various energy storage technologies, supercapacitors have attracted significant attention due to their high power density, rapid charge–discharge capability, and long cycle life, operating through a combination of electric double-layer capacitance (EDLC) and faradaic redox mechanisms. However, the performance of supercapacitors is strongly governed by the properties of electrode materials, including surface area, electrical conductivity, and electrochemical activity. Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as promising electrode materials owing to their high surface area, tunable porosity, and well-defined crystalline structures. Nevertheless, their practical application is often limited by intrinsically low electrical conductivity and insufficient redox-active sites. ZIF-67, constructed from Co²⁺ ions and 2-methylimidazole ligands, represents a representative MOF material that can be further engineered to improve its electrochemical performance. In particular, partial metal substitution with Mn²⁺ to form bimetallic Mn-ZIF-67 is expected to enhance redox activity, provide additional active sites, and facilitate charge-transfer processes. In this work, Mn-ZIF-67 was successfully synthesized via a facile room-temperature coprecipitation route using mixed Co²⁺ and Mn²⁺ precursors with 2-methylimidazole as the organic linker. The as-prepared material was dried and subsequently characterized to confirm phase formation, crystallinity, and morphological features. Structural and morphological analyses were performed using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), revealing the preservation of the ZIF framework and a uniform polyhedral morphology. The electrochemical performance of the Mn-ZIF-67 electrode was systematically evaluated in a three-electrode configuration by cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and long-term cycling stability tests. The Mn-ZIF-67 electrode delivered a specific capacitance of 11.1 F g⁻¹ at a current density of 1 A g⁻¹, indicating a distinct contribution from faradaic charge storage processes associated with the redox activity of Co and Mn centers. Furthermore, the electrode retained approximately 83% of its initial capacitance after 5000 charge–discharge cycles, demonstrating satisfactory structural stability and electrochemical durability. The stable impedance response further suggests preserved charge-transfer characteristics during prolonged cycling. Overall, these results highlight the feasibility of Mn-modified ZIF-67 as a bimetallic MOF-based electrode material for faradaic supercapacitors and provide valuable insight into the rational design of MOF architectures for next-generation sustainable energy storage applications.