Introduction

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) represent a transformative development in photovoltaics due to their high power conversion efficiencies (PCEs), solution-processable fabrication, and low material cost. Since their inception, PSCs have witnessed a dramatic improvement in PCE from 3.8% in 2009 to over 27% in certified single-junction devices, with perovskite–silicon tandem cells now exceeding 33.9% efficiency. Despite this progress, challenges such as poor long-term stability, lead toxicity, and scalability hinder their commercial deployment.

Methodology

This study synthesizes recent advancements in materials engineering, device architecture, and integration techniques. The materials analyzed include mixed-cation and halide perovskites (e.g., Csx(FA₀.₄MA₀.₆)₁₋ₓPbI₂.₈Br₀.₂), lead-free alternatives (e.g., Cs₂TiBr₆), and 2D/3D hybrid structures. Evaluation methods span experimental fabrication outcomes, theoretical simulations, and comparative analyses of transport layers (e.g., ZnO, CuSbS₂, MBene) and encapsulation techniques (e.g., polymeric coatings, self-healing systems).

Results

The incorporation of dimensional and compositional engineering strategies—such as 2D Dion–Jacobson capping layers, covalent organic frameworks (COFs), and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs)—has led to marked improvements in stability and charge transport. Tandem and bifacial architectures have enabled PCEs exceeding 30%, while simulation studies indicate the potential for >33% with anti-reflective coatings. Lead-free compositions like Cs₂TiBr₆ have achieved simulated PCEs near 27%, demonstrating comparable promise without toxicity concerns. Advanced hole/electron transport layers, including SnO₂-MBene and C60-LiF-SnO₂ combinations, have significantly reduced charge recombination losses. Scalable manufacturing processes, such as blade coating and vapor-phase deposition, are facilitating the transition toward flexible and building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPVs). Encapsulation strategies have improved operational durability under moisture and UV exposure, while self-healing materials extend functional lifespan.

Conclusion

PSCs have reached the forefront of next-generation solar technology, achieving record-breaking efficiencies and notable breakthroughs in material science. However, further innovation is required to overcome issues of long-term environmental stability, reproducibility in large-scale fabrication, and lead toxicity. Continued interdisciplinary research into lead-free compositions, interface engineering, and scalable device processing will be crucial to enable the successful commercialization of PSCs. The integration of perovskites into tandem, flexible, and multifunctional platforms represents the next frontier in photovoltaic evolution.