Baculoviruses are large, double-stranded DNA viruses belonging to the family Baculoviridae, known for causing lethal infections and epizootics in insect populations, particularly within the orders Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera. Owing to their host restriction to invertebrates, they serve as promising biocontrol agents in integrated pest management. The codon usage patterns of viruses provide critical insights into their evolutionary trajectories, gene expression regulation, and host adaptation mechanisms. Despite significant advances in baculovirus genomics, the codon usage bias (CUB) of the Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) protein kinase (PK) gene remains poorly characterized. In this study, PK gene sequences from AcMNPV and thirteen reference baculoviruses were retrieved from the NCBI database for comprehensive bioinformatic analysis. We assessed nucleotide composition, relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU), effective number of codons (ENC), codon adaptation index (CAI), and additional compositional indices. Our findings revealed a strong preference for G- and C-ending codons. Moreover, the results indicated that the AcMNPV PK gene has a relatively low CUB. ENC–GC3s plots, parity rule 2 bias, and neutrality analyses suggested that natural selection plays a predominant role in shaping codon usage, while mutation pressure exerts a minor effect. Correlation and correspondence analyses further supported that both selection and mutation contribute to codon bias patterns. Moreover, CAI results demonstrated the high host adaptability of the AcMNPV PK gene. This work represents the first detailed investigation of codon usage in the AcMNPV PK gene, providing new insights into its molecular evolution, expression efficiency, and host–virus interactions.

Metarhizium anisopliae and Beauveria bassiana function as natural enemies that control various insect pests through their entomopathogenic properties. The biological control method based on these fungi provides an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical pesticides. The success of these fungi depends on multiple stages that make up their infection process. The infection process starts with spore attachment to the cuticle, followed by penetration and successful evasion of the host immune system. The scientific community needs to understand both molecular and ecological aspects of these fungi to enhance their performance in different environmental settings. This research compiles current knowledge about entomopathogenic fungi from 2015 to 2025 regarding their biological characteristics and practical applications. Research into genomic and transcriptomic data has discovered multiple virulence-related genes and stress-tolerant antioxidant metabolites that help fungi adapt to their hosts. Research conducted in controlled environments and outdoor fields demonstrates that these fungi perform better when scientists use enhanced formulations, resistant plant strains, and beneficial microbial associations in the soil and plant tissues. The combination of molecular research with ecological methods will enhance the potential of entomopathogenic fungi for future pest control methods. Biological control will become a reliable and sustainable agricultural tool when scientists develop new formulation methods and study how plants and fungi interact with each other and how they work together for better results.

Hookworm is one of the most prevalent neglected tropical diseases in the world, infecting nearly 1.5 billion people worldwide. Severe cases of hookworm can lead to severe anemia, which can cause developmental complications in young children. The current method of hookworm diagnosis involves egg detection from stool samples via a Kato–Katz smear under a microscope, which is neither efficient nor sensitive. Hookworm diagnosis involving amplification of species-specific cell-free DNA from urine samples is feasible, as hookworm DNA can be filtered out of urine. The goal is to demonstrate this feasibility so that working with stools can be avoided in the future. Different concentrations of ITS-2 and repeat primers for the amplification were tested, and 250 nM consistently demonstrated the best amplification. Six urine samples of approximately 40-50 mL were collected from Marquette University volunteers. Nine different serial dilutions of genomic DNA (gDNA) of Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale, demonstrating high, medium, and low concentrations, were prepared (3 different concentrations x 3 serial dilutions of each concentration = a total of 9 combinations). The nine combinations for each species were then filtered using Whatman grade 3 filter paper, air dried, and packed in a Ziploc bag with desiccant. Then, DNA was extracted using the QIAMP Blood Mini Kit and Nanodrop for concentration. These extracted DNAs are now being amplified using species-specific primers for both the ITS-2 gene and repeat fragments, including negative and positive controls, and will be visualized using gel electrophoresis. This is a novel assay that will reduce the need for using stools in the future, leading to a faster, more sensitive, and more specific assay that can help facilitate targeted mass drug administration.

Metapenaeus moyebi, a lacustrine penaeid shrimp exhibiting complete estuarine residency, constitutes a major component of tropical lagoon shrimp fisheries. This study provides the first comprehensive population assessment of the species in Sri Lankan waters, based on monthly sampling of 4,200 individuals from the Jaffna Lagoon between January 2022 and January 2025. Population parameters were estimated using TropFishR, and length at 50% sexual maturity (L_m₅₀) was analyzed using SizeMat. Spatial and temporal patterns were examined through distributional and phenological analyses. The von Bertalanffy growth parameters were estimated as L∞ = 11.2 cm, K = 2.64 yr⁻¹, and t_anchor = 0.18 yr. Estimated fishing mortality (F = 7.54 yr⁻¹), was below the maximum exploitation threshold (F_max = 8.91 yr⁻¹), with F/F_max = 0.73. However, ratios relative to conservative reference points, F/F_0.5 (2.64) and F/F_0.1 (1.71) exceeded 1, indicating potential sustainability concerns. Length at 50% and 75% capture (L_c50 = 5.98 cm, L_c75 = 6.27 cm) were smaller than L_m₅₀ (7.4 cm), suggesting growth overfishing due to harvest of individuals before sexual maturity. Reproductive phenology showed peak maturity of females (94%) by November, indicative of the spawning season, while immature individuals dominated catches from March to May, reflecting the main recruitment period into the lagoon population. Spatial analysis revealed significant ontogenetic segregation (p < 0.05), with immature shrimp concentrated near the lagoon mouth (52%) and decreasing toward inner lagoon zones. These findings demonstrate that M. moyebi maintains a resident life cycle with distinct spatial and temporal population structuring. Sustainable management requires spatially explicit conservation measures, including protection of nursery habitats and seasonal harvest closures to maintain stock resilience.

Marine organisms, including anchovies, are known to ingest microplastics—plastic particles less than 5 millimeters in diameter, raising significant ecological and human health concerns. This study examined the presence, composition, and potential sources of microplastics in anchovies collected from the Mercedes Fish Port in Camarines Norte, Philippines. A descriptive research design was employed, with 64 anchovy samples selected randomly for analysis. The samples underwent whole-body digestion, saline solution flotation, filtration, visual inspection, dimensional measurement, and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analysis. All recovered microplastics were identified as fibers with exclusively filamentous shapes. Among the colored plastic particles, red (50%) was the most prevalent, followed by black (25%) and pink (25%). These microplastic fibers varied in size, ranging from 201–400 μm, to 601–800 μm, to over 1000 μm. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analysis confirmed that all microplastic fibers were made of polyester, a common synthetic polymer. These findings suggest that textile waste and fishing-related activities are the likely sources of microplastic contamination in anchovies. The predominance of red-colored microplastic fibers supports a potential link to dyed synthetic materials commonly found in textile products and fishing gear. Microplastics were detected in 6.25% of anchovy samples from the Mercedes Fish Port—marking the first documented case of microplastic ingestion by anchovies in the Bicol Region. Although the occurrence rate is low, the presence of synthetic polyester fibers signals an emerging threat to marine ecosystems and food safety. This finding underscores the urgent need for increased awareness and proactive steps to address microplastic pollution. Given the serious implications to aquatic life and potential risks to human consumers, continued monitoring of microplastic contamination in marine species is highly recommended. Further research is crucial to evaluate the long-term ecological impacts, dispersal patterns, and potential health risks associated with microplastic contamination in marine organisms and human consumers.

The developmental success of marine ectotherms depends heavily on temperature, an important environmental factor, particularly during early life stages that are highly sensitive to thermal stress. In this study, we investigated how Tripneustes gratilla embryos developed at different temperatures (20°C, 25°C, 28°C, 30°C, and 35°C) throughout their early developmental stages, which include fertilization, cleavage, morulation, blastulation, gastrulation, and larval formation. Cumulative proportion of success over time (CPS, proportion-hour) estimates were fitted against temperature in a non-linear thermal reaction norm curve using the Lactin-2 model variant to determine key thermal traits, including the maximum CPS (CPS_max), thermal optimum (T_opt), critical thermal limits (CT_min and CT_max), thermal tolerance range (TTR), and thermal safety margin (TSM). Results revealed optimal development between 25°C and 28°C, with reduced success and developmental arrest at thermal extremes. Importantly, thermal tolerance narrowed and T_opt increased with developmental progression, indicating increased sensitivity in later stages. The research demonstrates that thermal windows exist at specific developmental stages, and the larval stage shows the narrowest tolerance range and safety margin. Our results highlight the vulnerability of T. gratilla's early development to ocean warming and underscore the need to identify thermal thresholds to inform conservation strategies for marine invertebrates under climate change.

Ocean temperatures are increasing at a critical rate, altering the geographic distribution and likely the frequency and severity of toxic algal blooms. Hence, understanding how temperature influences toxin production in toxic algal species is critical for predicting future toxic bloom dynamics under climate change scenarios. In this study, we investigated the temperature dependence of the production of okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxins (DTX1 and DTX2) in the marine dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima CCAP 1136/11. Experiments were conducted to determine toxin production under rapid and gradual exposure to a temperature gradient from 5°C to 25°C in 5°C increments. LC-MS/MS analysis confirmed the presence of OA, DTX1, and DTX2, suggesting toxigenicity of this dinoflagellate strain. Temperature had a significant effect on the cellular content, relative composition, and cellular production rates of OA and DTX1. Rapid temperature changes resulted in higher OA/DTX1 ratios compared to gradual exposure, highlighting the complex temperature-dependent dynamics of toxin production. Furthermore, these findings support the hypothesis that toxin production is a stress response mechanism, uncoupled from growth, and is triggered by suboptimal temperatures. The results underscore the importance of incorporating acclimation effects in models forecasting harmful algal bloom toxicity, particularly in the context of increasing thermal variability under climate change.

Asian aquaculture faces growing threats from biofilm-forming bacterial pathogens, compounded by widespread antimicrobial resistance from antibiotic overuse. This study explores host-derived probiotics as viable alternatives by isolating gut bacteria from Mugil cephalus, a key marine fish species cultured along India's southeastern coast. Among 28 isolates recovered from intestinal contents, strain GM30 showed promising antimicrobial and enzymatic properties. Molecular identification using 16S rRNA gene sequencing confirmed it as Pseudomonas stutzeri, showing 99% similarity Using agar well diffusion assays, GM30 demonstrated inhibitory activity against six common fish pathogens, including Aeromonas salmonicida, Aeromonas caviae, Vibrio harveyi, Vibrio vulnificus, Edwardsiella tarda, and Staphylococcus aureus. The strain exhibited favourable probiotic characteristics: 37.1% surface hydrophobicity, indicating high adhesion potential; 3% tolerance to bile salts; 70.5% autoaggregation capacity after 24 hours; and 29.03% antioxidant activity via DPPH radical scavenging. GM30 produced several digestive enzymes: amylase (0.68 U/mL), pectinase (0.93 U/mL), protease, lipase, and cellulase, which could improve nutrient utilisation and feed conversion efficiency in commercial settings. Interestingly, the partially purified amylase fraction (50-65 kDa) showed activity beyond simple starch breakdown. It appeared to disrupt the polysaccharide structures within pathogenic biofilms, suggesting an additional protective mechanism against persistent infections. This combination of pathogen inhibition, enzyme production, gastrointestinal stress tolerance, and potential biofilm disruption makes P. stutzeri GM30 worth investigating further for practical aquaculture applications. The results support developing antibiotic-free strategies that address both productivity enhancement and disease management challenges in intensive fish farming systems prevalent across Asia.

In the Mediterranean Sea, the dolphin morbillivirus caused severe mortality among striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) during 1990–1992 and 2007, although the latter outbreak appeared to be less intense. In response to these events, this study evaluated whether epizootics led to the stranding of typically offshore individuals that would not have been stranded during non-epizootic periods, and how these episodes affected population abundance and age structure. To address the first objective, morphometric data recorded in necropsy reports of stranded dolphins between 1980 and 2024—compiled by the University of Valencia—were analyzed using principal component analysis. To assess the second objective, temporal patterns of stranding frequency and the relative proportions of age classes were examined. Results indicated that dolphins stranded in 1990 exhibited significantly larger multivariate body sizes compared to other years, except for the 1980–1989 period. Regarding morphometry, the principal component most strongly associated with fin measurements revealed that 1990 differed from all periods except 2007, which, in turn, only differed from the inter-epizootic interval. The number of strandings did not decline following epizootics; rather, it increased and stabilized around 2013. Nonetheless, after 1990, the age structure became dominated by calves and juveniles. These findings suggest that during epizootics, particularly that of 1990, individuals exhibiting oceanic morphometric traits may have been stranded, and selective adult mortality may have altered the population’s age composition. Although striped dolphins displayed a distinct trend in stranding frequency compared to other cetaceans, disentangling the effect of the epizootic from that of the establishment of the stranding network in 1990 remains challenging. Overall, the results highlight the potential population-level consequences of epizootics in long-lived species and emphasize the importance of maintaining effective stranding monitoring networks.

The circulatory system of cuttlefish (Sepiidae) has been extensively described, yet no comprehensive reconstruction exists for bobtail squids (Sepiolidae), a family of ecological and evolutionary importance within Decapodiformes. To address this gap, we examined five cuttlefish species (Sepia lycidas, S. esculenta, S. tenuipes, S. japonica, and S. kobiensis) and two bobtail squids (Rossia bipapillata and Sepiolina neponensis). For each specimen, morphometric parameters (sex, total length, and mantle length) were recorded, and branchial hearts and renal appendages were processed for histological analysis using serial microtomy and a panel of stains (H&E, PAS, Masson’s trichrome, and Giemsa). This approach allowed us to trace vessel continuity, characterize tissue architecture, and identify sites of parasite colonization. From these observations, we established and illustrated the first complete circulatory system diagram for Sepiolidae, providing histological confirmation of vascular connections between gills, branchial hearts, systemic heart, and renal appendages. While the gross architecture parallels that of Sepiidae, sepiolids exhibited distinctive renal appendage histology, including denser epithelial folding and variable vascularization. Furthermore, renal tissues were screened for parasitic taxa, revealing the presence of dicyemids and Chromidina spp. in select individuals. Comparative histology has previously shown that the external surface of renal organs varies morphologically across cephalopods [1], and one dicyemid species was found in the branchial heart appendage of Rossia pacifica [2]. By combining morphometrics, histology, and parasitology, this study delivers the first validated account of sepiolid circulation, closes a major anatomical knowledge gap in Decapodiformes, and establishes a framework for future research on cephalopod physiology, host–parasite interactions, and evolutionary adaptations of the circulatory system.

References

[1] Furuya, H. (2004). Renal organs of cephalopods: A habitat for dicyemids and chromidinids. Journal of Morphology, 261(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmor.10265

[2] Furuya, H. (2007). Redescription of two Dicyemennea (Phylum: Dicyemida) from Rossia pacifica (Mollusca: Cephalopoda). Journal of Parasitology, 93(5), 1064–1071. https://doi.org/10.1645/GE-1503.1